librarian2003 (librarian2003) wrote in weagardening, @ 2011-11-01 01:07:00 |
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Week 6
I can't believe that week 6 has come and gone.
We took a break from looking at our Plants of the Week, to give everyone time to catch up.
Our main topic was the use of botanical names for plants. And there was homework, at which everyone did really well. I never doubted!
The handout is here:
GARDENING FOR PLEASURE
The Meaning of Latin Plant Names
Botanical names are often referred to as Latin names, but this is slightly misleading. While it is true that the rules governing the formation and spelling of names are based on Latin, any word, in any language, can form the basis of a plant name. Thus many plant names commemorate people and places or are derived from common names used in the country of origin. These are indiscriminately mixed with Latin and Greek words, all of them ‘latinized’ by following the rules of Latin grammar.
Every plant that has been described by scientists has been given a scientific name. Each plant has a genus name (like a surname) and a species name, or epithet (like a given name). Together, these two names uniquely identify that plant. Fagus sylvatica is the name for the European beech tree and no other plant in the world has this name combination. Once you know the scientific name of a plant, it is easy to find other information on it, for example: other names it is known by, where it grows, the types of habitat it grows in, its uses, whether it is edible or toxic, and if it has any cultural significance.
English names can be misleading. Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneoides) doesn't come from Spain and is not a moss. Its specific epithet ‘usneoides’ means lichen-like, which is much more descriptive.
Plant names – how are they written?
Genus and species names should be written in italics. The complete citation of a name would also include the name, or an abbreviation of the name, of the person who published the species. The person who first described Magnolia grandiflora and had the name and description published was Linnaeus, usually abbreviated to L. in plant name citations: Magnolia grandiflora L. In botanical texts, another convention is that once a genus has been mentioned, it can be abbreviated (usually to the first letter) in subsequent text. So as our example has already been written, it can now be abbreviated to M. grandiflora.
Why use Latin?
Botanical Latin is an international language used by botanists the world over for naming and describing plants. It originates from the Latin of the Roman plant writers, notably Pliny the Elder (A.D. 23-79). The Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus(1707-79) formally established the tradition that all plants should be given Latin names (or names of Latin form) and that works relating to them should also be in Latin. This tradition of using Latin has continued for many good reasons . Latin is a dead language, so the meanings of words do not change in the same way as those for living languages. Also, botanical Latin is very descriptive, with many terms for shape, texture and colour. Another advantage is that Latin does not inspire the political jealousies that might emerge if botanists were to convert to, say, English or Spanish.
Why are scientific names better than English ones?
A scientific name will tell you a lot about a plant. In the same way that members of a family of people will share a surname, groups of closely related plants share a genus name. Cupressus sempervivens, Cupressus macrocarpa and Cupressus bakeri, for example, are trees which have been grouped together because they share many characters and are therefore, considered to be related. This means that given a plant name, if you are familiar with other plants in that genus, you can make an educated guess about the appearance, smell or chemistry of the new plant even if you’ve never seen it before. In other words, a genus name is predictive.
The uniqueness of a scientific name is vital as it prevents a huge amount of confusion. The same common name can be used for more than one plant. For example the name ‘bluebell’ is given to Hyacinthoides non-scripta, which carpets English woods in spring. However, in Scotland the ‘bluebell’ is Campanula rotundifolia, a delicate flower of dry, open ground. If you were reading something that mentioned bluebells, how would you know which plant it was talking about?
A plant can also have many different common names that vary between regions and through time. Many plants have more than one vernacular (local) name. Bird’s-foot-trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), for example, is also known in the UK as hen and chickens, TomThumb, granny’s toenails, cuckoo’s stockings, and Dutchman’s clogs. Finding information on a plant is almost impossible if you have to search under references to all the names it is, or has ever been, known by. Scientific names are also recognised globally. This means that when botanists in Bangor, Bogata, Bombay or Biysk mention Meconopsis baileyi they are all talking about the same plant. Another good reason for using scientific names is that the majority of the world’s plants do not have English names.
Examples of meanings
• Giant horsetail - Equisetum giganteum: Equus = horse, setum = bristle, giganteum = giant
• Ginkgo biloba: Ginkgo = the Chinese name for Ginkgo, biloba = two-lobed
• Daisy - Bellis perennis: bellus = pretty, perennis = perennial
• Scabiosa atropurpurea: From Latin scabies =itch (the plant was once used as a remedy for skin diseases), atropurpurea = dark purple referring to the colour of the flower
• Stinking iris - Iris foetidissima: Iris = A rainbow, presumably from the many colours of the flowers, foetidissima = most fetid (smelliest)
• Corylopsis veitchiana: From Greek korylos = hazel + -opsis = like (hazel- like foliage), veitchiana = after the Veitch family who sent many collectors out on expeditions for plants for their nursery
• Forsythia spectabilis: Named after William Forsyth (1737-1805), spectabilis = showy
• Saxifraga biflora; saxi = rock + fraga = to break - ‘rock-breaker’, from its habit of living in crevices, biflora = two-flowered
• Coconut - Cocos nucifera: Cocos = referring to a monkey (from Portuguese) - the nut (fruit) with its three holes is reminiscent of a monkey’s face, nucifera = nut-bearing
• Galanthus ikariae: Gala = milk, anthos = flower (Snowdrop genus), ikariae = from the island of Ikaria in the Aegean. According to Greek mythology, this is the island from where Icarus made his unsuccessful flight to the Heavens
Botanical Latin – common terms in names
Knowing the origins or meanings of names helps to make them more interesting , informative and memorable. Many names describe the plant, or a part of it. Others mention the region or habitat in which the plant grows. Some suggest medicinal properties or other uses, while others simply commemorate the name of its discoverer or a botanist who worked on it.
One area of confusion with scientific names is that the endings change. The reason is that in Latin an adjective must agree in gender with its noun. For example, niger, nigra, or nigrum all mean ‘black’. Here, the root ‘nig-‘ or ‘nigr-’ is the bit to recognise.
Like many other languages, Latin assigns genders to all its nouns, and adjectives have to agree with the gender of the noun they describe. In plant names, therefore, those that are deemed masculine will end in -us, those that are feminine will end in -a, and those that are neuter will end in -um (plus some odd ones with other endings). If you come across a plant with much the same name, but ending in -us or –um or -a, it means the same.
Why do plant names keep changing?
One of the commonest reasons for name changes is misidentification. Plants can be introduced into horticulture under an incorrect name that can quickly spread and become familiar before being corrected. Also, according to the set of rules for naming plants (the International Code for Botanical Nomenclature), if a plant has been described more than once, then the oldest name has priority. As taxonomists study plants in closer detail, they may change their ideas about relationships between them. A genus may be split into two or more groups, or a plant can be moved from one genus to another. For example in the nineteenth century Azalea was merged with Rhododendron, and Chrysanthemum has been split into several genera. Although it may be inconvenient at the time, using the most up-to-date knowledge about which genus a plant belongs to increases predictivity, or the amount of information that you can presume about a plant. An accurate name puts a plant in the correct place in the filing system of botanical classification.
The purpose of the Latin or botanical name of plants is to provide some information about a particular plant that distinguishes it from other plants.
The adjective applied to the plant, the specific epithet, is often helpful in describing the plant. The specific epithet can tell us the colour of the flowers, the height of the plant, whether the leaves are long and thin or short and fat, whether the plant is prickly, where it comes from (which might give us a clue as to how hardy it is), what sort of conditions it occurs in naturally, how big it is, whether it's a climber or whether it's creeping, whether it's deciduous, has a bulb, is edible - or whatever else the person who found it thought most remarkable, noteworthy and unique about it.
But it isn't always so systematic. Some species names (second Latin name) are just translations in Latin of the old English name. So the water plant Frog-bit is called Hydrocharis morsus-ranae and morsus-ranae means "bite of the frog".
Using common names
Having begun with a section on common names and why they are not the best way to communicate information about plants, let’s end with one celebrating them. They are, after all, often charmingly descriptive and contribute richly to our vocabulary. In a context where their meaning is clear, there is nothing wrong with using common names.
To refer to gardener’s garters rather than Phalaris arundinacea var. picta and King Edward potatoes instead of Solanum tuberosum ‘King Edward’ is usually the only sensible option. The same is true when we talk about wallflowers, daffodils, pansies and other common garden plants, either among our friends or for an audience sharing the same language and gardening experience.
Only when communicating with a large audience, as books and magazines must do, is it necessary to think more carefully about using precise botanical names. Or, perhaps, when ordering the latest introduction from a far-flung corner of the world, its common name (or names) might be even more difficult to get to grips with than, for instance, Xysmalobium stockenstroemense or Romanzoffia unalaschcensis.
These are some of the Latin specific epithets often applied to plants we grow in our gardens.
abyssinica = from Abyssinia (Ethiopia) (North Africa)
acaulis = stemless
aestivalis = flowering in spring
alba = white
alpestris = from mountains
alpicola = from mountains
alpina = from the alps
altissima = tallest
america = from America
angustifolia = narrow-leaved
annua = annual
-antha = -flowered (e.g. micrantha = small-flowered)
arboricola = living on trees
arctica = from the arctic
arenaria = from sandy places
argentea = silvery
armata = prickly
arvensis = of the field
aurantiaca = orange
aurea = golden, yellow
australis = from the south (not necessarily Australia)
autumnalis = of autumn
azurea = blue
barbata = bearded, hairy
bellidifolia = with leaves like those of a daisy
borealis = from the north
bulbifera = bearing bulbs
bulgarica = from Bulgaria
caerulea = blue
caespitosa = dense
campanulata = campanulate, like a bell
campestris = of the field
canadensis = from Canada
canariensis = from the Canary Isles
capensis = from the Cape, South Africa
chilensis = from Chile
chinensis = from China
chrysantha = yellow
clivora = from the hills
coccinea = red
compacta = compact
decidua = deciduous
densiflora = dense-flowered
digitata = (leaves) like a hand, with five lobes
edulis = edible
esculenta = edible
farinosa = floury, powdery
ficifolia = like a fig leaf
flava = yellow
-flora = -flowered (e.g. viridiflora = green-flowered)
flore plena = with double flowers
florida = floriferous
foetida = with an unpleasant smell
-folia = -leaved (e.g. tenuifolia = narrow-leaved)
foliosa = leafy
fruticosa = shrubby
gigantea = giant
glabra = smooth
glacialis = from cold areas
glutinosa = sticky
graeca = from Greece
graminifolia = with grassy leaves
grandiflora = large-flowered
grandis = big
helvetica = from Switzerland
hirsuta = hairy
hispida = bristly
humilis = short
hyemalis = of winter
incana = grey
inodora = unscented
integrifolia = entire, undivided (leaves)
japonica = from Japan
lanata = woolly
lanceolata = lance-shaped (leaves)
latifolia = wide-leaved
longiflora = with long flowers
longifolia = with long leaves
lutea = yellow
macrantha = large flowered
macro- = large- (e.g. macrorhiza = large-rooted)
macrocarpa = large-fruited
macrophylla = with large leaves
macrorrhiza = with large roots
maculata = spotted
magellanica = from the south of South America
magenta = magenta
magna = big
majus = bigger
maritima = maritime, near the sea
maxima = biggest
mexicana = from Mexico
micrantha = small flowered
microphylla = with small leaves
millefolia = with many (thousands of) leaves
minima = small
minor = smaller
montana = from mountains
multiflora = many flowered
muralis = growing on walls
nana = small
nocturna = nocturnal
ochroleuca = cream
odorata = perfumed
officinalis = with herbal uses
ovalifolia = with oval leaves
pallida = cream
palustris = from marshes
parvi- = small- (e.g. parivflora = small-flowered)
parviflora = small flowered
parvifolia = with small leaves
pauci- = few- (e.g. pauciflora =few-flowered)
pauciflora = few-flowered
paucifolia = with few leaves
pendula = hanging
perennis = perennial
phoenicea = purple
-phylla = -leaved (e.g. macrophylla = large-leaved)
pinnata = with pinnate leaves
poly- = many (e.g polyantha = many-flowered)
polyphylla = with many leaves, leafy
praecox = early, of spring
pratensis = field
procumbens = creeping
prostrata = prostrate
pulverulenta = dusty
pumila = small
punica = red
purpurea = deep pink
pygmaea = small
quercifolia = oak=leaved
rediviva = perennial
rivalis = from near rivers
rivularis = from near rivers
rosea = rose pink
rotundifolia = round-leaved
rubra = red
rupestris = of hills
rupicola = of hills
russica = from Russia
sanguinea = blood-red
sativa = cultivated
saxatilis = of rocks
scaber = climbing
scandens = climbing
semperviva = perennial
sibirica = from Siberia
sinense = from China
somnifera = inducing sleep
spicata = spiked
spinosa = spiny
stellata = starry
sulphurea = yellow
sylvestris = of woods
tenuifolia = with thin, narrow leaves
texensis = from Texas
tomentosa = tomentose, woolly
trifoliata = trifoliate, with three-lobed leaves
umbellata = unbellate, with flowers in an umbel
velutina = velvety
vernalis = of spring
villosa = hairy
violacea = violet
viridis = green
viscosa = sticky
vitifolia = with leaves like a vine
volubilis = twining
vulgaris = common
Here are some of the Latin species names which describe where a plant grows (its habitat):
agrostis or agrestis = in fields
aquatica = in watery places
arvensis/arvense = in arable fields
campestris/campestre = in grazed/mowed fields
littoralis/littorale = in a place often covered by the sea
maritimus/maritima = by the sea (broadly speaking)
muralis/murale = on walls
palustris/paludosa = in marshy places
riparia/rivularis = in rivers/streams
ruderalis = in waste places
rupestris/rupicola = on rocks
stagnalis = in pools/ponds
sylvestris = in woods
uliginosus/uliginosa = in marshy places
Other Latin species names give us some idea of the shape of the plant or describe the plant in some way:
acutus/acuta = sharp-pointed
annuus/annua annual = living one year
auriculatus/auriculata - eared
biennis biennial = living two years
caespitosus = tufted
campanulus/campanulata = bell-shaped
capillaris = hair-shaped
compressus/compressa = flattened lengthwise
cordatus/cordata = heart-shaped
crispus/crispa = curled
cristatus/cristata = crested
dentatus/dentata = toothlike
diffusus = spreading widely
lanatus/lanata = woolly
lanceolatus/lanceolata = narrowly elliptical
nanus/pumilus/pygmaeus = dwarf
natans = floating underwater
nutans = nodding
obtusus/obtusa = blunt
officinalis = used in medicine
ovalis = oval
perennis perennial = living many years
pilosus/pubescens/villosus/hispidus = some kind of hairiness
plicata = folded lengthwise
punctatus/punctata = dotted
pyramidalis/conicus/conica = cone-shaped
ramosus/ramosa = branched
sagittatus/sagittata = arrow-shaped
serratus/serrata = sawlike
spinosus/spinosa = spiny
spiralis = spiral-shaped
stellatus/stellata = star-shaped
trigonous = three-cornered
Sources
http://theseedsite.co.uk/latin.html
http://www.rhs.org.uk/rhsplantfinder/pl
http://www.kew.org/ksheets/pdfs/b2n
http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-on
For the meaning of every botanical epithet you might ever come across:
http://www.winternet.com/~chuckg/dictio
Jo Hanslip
October 2011
And if you want the quizzes I set, here they are, with and without answers. Be careful which link you click on!
ONE
Colours : Albiflora
Atropurpurea
Leaves : Aquifolium
Flower type : Spectabilis
Size : Compacta
Habitats : Rupestris
TWO
Colours : Atrovirens
Aurantiaca
Leaves : Crispum/crispa
Elliptica
Size : Gigantea
How it grows : Arboreum
THREE
Colours : Aurea
Carneus
Leaves : Glabrum
Hederifolium
Size : Pumila
How it grows : Arundinacea
FOUR
Colours : Citrinus
Coccineus
Leaves : Hirta
Latifolia
Size : Pygmaea
How it grows : Columnaris
FIVE
Colours : Coeruleus
Concolor
Leaves : Macrophylla
Mollis
Habitats : Aquatica
How it grows : Erecta
SIX
Colours : Flavus
Glauca
Leaves : Nitida
Pinnatum
Habitats : Arenarius
How it grows : Fastigiata
SEVEN
Colours : Icterina
Lutea
Leaves : Tetraphylla
Ternata
Habitats : Littoralis
How it grows : Horizontalis
EIGHT
Colours : Nigra/nigrescens
Phaeum
Flower types : Centifolia
Habitats : Maritima
How it grows : Pendula
Repens
NINE
Colours : Purpurea
Rubens/rubra
Flower types : Nudiflorum
Habitats : Montana
How it grows : Procumbens
Use : Sativum
TEN
Colours : Sanguinea/sanguineum
Viridis
Flower types : Regale
Habitats : Palustris
How it grows : Pyramidalis
Use : Officinalis
ONE
Colours : Albiflora White flowered
(Anemone apennina var albiflora)
Atropurpurea Dark purple
(Fagus sylvatica ‘Atropurpurea’)
Leaves : Aquifolium Leaves pointed like a holly
(Mahonia aquifolium)
Flower type : Spectabilis Showy
(Dicentra spectabilis)
Size : Compacta Compact
(Achillea compacta)
Habitats : Rupestris Growing among rocks
(Viola rupestris)
TWO
Colours : Atrovirens Dark green
(Thuja plicata ‘Atrovirens’)
Aurantiaca Orange
(Alstroemeria aurantiaca)
Leaves : Crispum/crispa Curly
(Petroselinum crispum)
Elliptica Ellipse-shaped
(Garrya elliptica)
Size : Gigantea Big
(Stipa gigantean)
How it grows : Arboreum Tree-like
(Aeonium arboreum)
THREE
Colours : Aurea Golden
(Bidens aurea)
Carneus Flesh-coloured
(Gladiolus carneus)
Leaves : Glabrum Smooth, hairless
(Acer glabrum)
Hederifolium Ivy-leaved
(Cyclamen hederifolium)
Size : Pumila Dwarf
(Ficus pumila)
How it grows : Arundinacea Reed-like
(Stipa arundinacea)
FOUR
Colours : Citrinus Yellow
(Ranunculus acre ‘Citrinus’)
Coccineus Scarlet
(Hibiscus coccineus)
Leaves : Hirta Hairy
(Rudbeckia hirta)
Latifolia Broad-leaved
(Lathyrus latifolius)
Size : Pygmaea Small
(Nymphaea pygmaea)
How it grows : Columnaris Upright habit
(Chamaecyparis columnaris)
FIVE
Colours : Coeruleus Dark blue
(Aquilegia coerulea)
Concolor One colour
(Abies concolor)
Leaves : Macrophylla Large-leaved
(Brunnera macrophylla)
Mollis Soft/with soft hairs
(Alchemilla mollis)
Habitats : Aquatica Growing in or near the water
(Mentha aquatic)
How it grows : Erecta Upright
(Tagetes erecta)
SIX
Colours : Flavus Yellow
(Cornus sericea ‘Flaviramea')
Glauca Blue
(Rosa glauca)
Leaves : Nitida Shining/glossy
(Lonicera nitida)
Pinnatum Feathery leaves
(Epimedium pinnatum)
Habitats : Arenarius Sandy
(Dianthus arenarius)
How it grows : Fastigiata With erect and almost parallel branches
(Taxus baccata ‘Fastigiata’)
SEVEN
Colours : Icterina Marked with yellow
(Salvia officinalis ‘Icterina’)
Lutea Yellow
(Corydalis lutea)
Leaves : Tetraphylla With four leaflets
(Oxalis tetraphylla)
Ternata With three leaflets
(Choisya ternate)
Habitats : Littoralis Near the sea shore
(Griselinia littoralis)
How it grows : Horizontalis Flat
(Cotoneaster horizontalis)
EIGHT
Colours : Nigra/nigrescens Black
(Sambucus nigra)
Phaeum Brownish or swarthy
(Geranium phaeum)
Flower types : Centifolia One hundred leaves/petals
(Rosa x centifolia)
Habitats : Maritima Near the sea
(Armeria maritima)
How it grows : Pendula Drooping or weeping
(Betula pendula)
Repens Creeping
(Ceanothus repens)
NINE
Colours : Purpurea Purple
(Digitalis purpurea)
Rubens/rubra Red
(Clematis montana var. rubens 'Elizabeth')
Flower types : Nudiflorum Naked flowered
(Jasminum nudiflorum)
Habitats : Montana Mountain
(Clematis Montana)
How it grows : Procumbens Lying down or scrambling
(Fuchsia procumbens)
Use : Sativum Edible
(Allium sativum)
TEN
Colours : Sanguinea/sanguineum Blood-red
(Cornus sanguineum)
Viridis Green
(Helleborus viridus)
Flower types : Regale Magnificent
(Lilium regale)
Habitats : Palustris Marshy
(Euphorbia palustris)
How it grows : Pyramidalis With a pyramid or conical shape
(Juniperus chinensis ‘Pyramidalis’)
Use : Officinalis Used medicinally/in the apothecary’s shop
(Salvia officinalis)
Our sites of the week are here
GARDENING FOR PLEASURE
Sites of the week : Week 6
1 For advice, encouragement and information
The BBC’s Gardening Website
http://www.bbc.co.uk/learning/subje
and
http://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/
2 For advice, guides and projects
Garden Advice
http://www.gardenadvice.co.uk
3 For gorgeous seeds and plants at ebay prices
Choice Plants
http://stores.ebay.co.uk/Choice-Plants
4 For the national collection of hardy fuchsias, and advice
Kathleen Muncaster Fuchsias
http://www.kathleenmuncasterfuchsia
5 For mail order delphiniums and carnations
Newport Mills Nursery
http://newportmillsnursery.farming.offi
Jo Hanslip
October 2011
I had a good time - hope you all did.
Jo